Editing Emerging technologies, emerging markets – fostering the innovation potential of research infrastructures
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| submission-date = 2018-10-09 | | submission-date = 2018-10-09 | ||
| type = Report | | type = Report | ||
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+ | | url = http://www.envriplus.eu/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/D1.1-Emerging-technologies-emerging-markets-fostering-the-innovation-potential-of-research-infrastructures.pdf | ||
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The aim of WP1-task 1.1, is to identify and analyse emerging environmental observations technologies (sensors and platforms) that could be useful to, and benefit from, Research infrastructures (RIs) to realize and achieve their market potential. The task also aims to explore technical challenges, market barriers and ongoing initiatives related to these technologies. The deliverable D1.1 is tailored to be a source of inspiration for Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs), while investigating new business opportunities, as well as for the EU bodies, pointing them the specific areas requiring additional attention and financing. | The aim of WP1-task 1.1, is to identify and analyse emerging environmental observations technologies (sensors and platforms) that could be useful to, and benefit from, Research infrastructures (RIs) to realize and achieve their market potential. The task also aims to explore technical challenges, market barriers and ongoing initiatives related to these technologies. The deliverable D1.1 is tailored to be a source of inspiration for Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs), while investigating new business opportunities, as well as for the EU bodies, pointing them the specific areas requiring additional attention and financing. | ||
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Monitoring environmental parameters and climate change is a complex task which answers grand challenges. It is of crucial importance (Bell and Joseph 2018) for all countries and societies. Development of technologies for such monitoring is in huge demand and driven by numerous factors (fig.1). Among them are demand for the high quality of measurements and development of new types of measurements, reduction of measurements costs, necessity to control the pollution and avoiding the legislative responsibility for the contamination of the environment. Besides, there is a large societal demand based on the ongoing decrease of air, soil and water quality. Environmental monitoring is a complicated activity, because technical requirements for the innovative measurement platforms, systems and sensors can vary significantly across regions and domains. Such variations certainly create unwanted difficulties for the technology producers, especially small and medium enterprises (SMEs), due to their generally limited resources. European businesses are limited in their development in this field due to the inability to overcome the technological differences, to overview the possible paths for development of corresponding markets and to establish the contacts in-between research communities, technology producers and other supporting businesses. This deliverable of ENVRIplus<ref>https://www.envriplus.eu/</ref> project serves to overpass mentioned difficulties of environmental measurements in Europe. It is aimed to help SMEs, scientific communities and other interested partners to establish fruitful, beneficial collaborations and to understand the possible vectors of development of European environmental measurements and monitoring. | Monitoring environmental parameters and climate change is a complex task which answers grand challenges. It is of crucial importance (Bell and Joseph 2018) for all countries and societies. Development of technologies for such monitoring is in huge demand and driven by numerous factors (fig.1). Among them are demand for the high quality of measurements and development of new types of measurements, reduction of measurements costs, necessity to control the pollution and avoiding the legislative responsibility for the contamination of the environment. Besides, there is a large societal demand based on the ongoing decrease of air, soil and water quality. Environmental monitoring is a complicated activity, because technical requirements for the innovative measurement platforms, systems and sensors can vary significantly across regions and domains. Such variations certainly create unwanted difficulties for the technology producers, especially small and medium enterprises (SMEs), due to their generally limited resources. European businesses are limited in their development in this field due to the inability to overcome the technological differences, to overview the possible paths for development of corresponding markets and to establish the contacts in-between research communities, technology producers and other supporting businesses. This deliverable of ENVRIplus<ref>https://www.envriplus.eu/</ref> project serves to overpass mentioned difficulties of environmental measurements in Europe. It is aimed to help SMEs, scientific communities and other interested partners to establish fruitful, beneficial collaborations and to understand the possible vectors of development of European environmental measurements and monitoring. | ||
− | + | FIGURE 1 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNOLOGY | |
==1.3 Approach of this work: methodology== | ==1.3 Approach of this work: methodology== | ||
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Open path FTIR spectrometers are not equipped with an internal measurement cell. Indeed, the measurement is done along an external optical path. Thus, the path length pay vary from several meters to several hundred meters. Open path FTIR devices are represented by monostatic or bistatic configurations. In monostatic configuration, emitter of light and its detector are located in one compartment, while external light reflectors are used to reverse the light beam from the lights source to the detector. This configuration is beneficial, since both emitter and receiver of light can be connected to the same power source. In bistatic configuration, light emitter and light detector are in different locations. The typical bistatic configuration uses the sun as the light source (e.g. FTIR spectrometer used in the TCCON project) and by measuring thus the direct solar spectra, measures the mean concentration of GHG and other compounds in the total atmospheric column. | Open path FTIR spectrometers are not equipped with an internal measurement cell. Indeed, the measurement is done along an external optical path. Thus, the path length pay vary from several meters to several hundred meters. Open path FTIR devices are represented by monostatic or bistatic configurations. In monostatic configuration, emitter of light and its detector are located in one compartment, while external light reflectors are used to reverse the light beam from the lights source to the detector. This configuration is beneficial, since both emitter and receiver of light can be connected to the same power source. In bistatic configuration, light emitter and light detector are in different locations. The typical bistatic configuration uses the sun as the light source (e.g. FTIR spectrometer used in the TCCON project) and by measuring thus the direct solar spectra, measures the mean concentration of GHG and other compounds in the total atmospheric column. | ||
− | + | TABLE2STRENGTHSANDLIMITATIONSOFFTIR | |
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− | + | TABLE3PRODUCERSOFDEVICESFORFTIR | |
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====2.1.2.3 Ultraviolet Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy (UV-DOAS)==== | ====2.1.2.3 Ultraviolet Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy (UV-DOAS)==== | ||
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The UV-DOAS is an optical remote sensing technology (Leytem et al. 2009), determining concentrations of gaseous species of interest through measuring the absorption of UV light by chemical compounds in the gas phase and calculating their concentration through Beer- Lambert law (Volkamera et al. 1998). Open path UV-DOAS instrument can be deployed in several modes, namely monostatic, bistatic and passive (EPA Handbook: Optical Remote Sensing for Measurement and Monitoring of Emissions flux, 2011). Constructions of monostatic and bistatic configurations is similar to those of FTIR, described above. Passive configuration uses the ambient light to measure the concentrations of pollutants and does not require a transmitter in its construction. Such configuration is especially suitable for the installation on the balloon stations to measure the concentrations of the pollutants in the atmosphere. | The UV-DOAS is an optical remote sensing technology (Leytem et al. 2009), determining concentrations of gaseous species of interest through measuring the absorption of UV light by chemical compounds in the gas phase and calculating their concentration through Beer- Lambert law (Volkamera et al. 1998). Open path UV-DOAS instrument can be deployed in several modes, namely monostatic, bistatic and passive (EPA Handbook: Optical Remote Sensing for Measurement and Monitoring of Emissions flux, 2011). Constructions of monostatic and bistatic configurations is similar to those of FTIR, described above. Passive configuration uses the ambient light to measure the concentrations of pollutants and does not require a transmitter in its construction. Such configuration is especially suitable for the installation on the balloon stations to measure the concentrations of the pollutants in the atmosphere. | ||
− | + | TABLE4STRENGTHSANDLIMITATIONOFUV-DOAS | |
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− | + | TABLE5PRODUCERSOFDEVICESFORUV-DOAS | |
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====2.1.2.4 Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy (TDLAS)==== | ====2.1.2.4 Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy (TDLAS)==== | ||
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TDLAS is a family of techniques based on the generation of light beam, characterized with the narrow wavelength and small cross-section area (Laser) (Pattey et al. 2006). This Laser beam is passed through the sample of gas, and detectors determine gas concentration by measuring the amount of absorbed light (Lackner 2007). Measured absorption spectra is matched with the ambient conditions, such as temperature and pressure and, at known effective path length, is used to determine the concentration of the gas. Developed over 30 years ago, near- infrared NIR-TDLAS is a technology with the high technology readiness level, commercially successful at multiple markets. During last years the TDLAS technology was improving, mainly due to the development of new laser sources, such as semiconductor quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) and inter-band cascade lasers (ICLs) (Sonnenfroh et al. 2004, Frish, 2014). These are mid-infrared laser sources (Mid-IR) suitable for measurements in the molecular fingerprint spectral region, where absorption line strengths are much stronger than in the NIR region. Because of that, MWIR can be used for detection of complex molecules, difficult to detect with NIR TDLAS. The further efforts are taken to reduce MWIR sensor noise and energy consumption by use of uncooled pulsed or low-power laser sources and small area uncooled detectors. Further reduction of MWIR laser cost by high-volume production, will make MWIR TDLAS sensors commercially attractive and widely used. | TDLAS is a family of techniques based on the generation of light beam, characterized with the narrow wavelength and small cross-section area (Laser) (Pattey et al. 2006). This Laser beam is passed through the sample of gas, and detectors determine gas concentration by measuring the amount of absorbed light (Lackner 2007). Measured absorption spectra is matched with the ambient conditions, such as temperature and pressure and, at known effective path length, is used to determine the concentration of the gas. Developed over 30 years ago, near- infrared NIR-TDLAS is a technology with the high technology readiness level, commercially successful at multiple markets. During last years the TDLAS technology was improving, mainly due to the development of new laser sources, such as semiconductor quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) and inter-band cascade lasers (ICLs) (Sonnenfroh et al. 2004, Frish, 2014). These are mid-infrared laser sources (Mid-IR) suitable for measurements in the molecular fingerprint spectral region, where absorption line strengths are much stronger than in the NIR region. Because of that, MWIR can be used for detection of complex molecules, difficult to detect with NIR TDLAS. The further efforts are taken to reduce MWIR sensor noise and energy consumption by use of uncooled pulsed or low-power laser sources and small area uncooled detectors. Further reduction of MWIR laser cost by high-volume production, will make MWIR TDLAS sensors commercially attractive and widely used. | ||
− | + | TABLE 6 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATION OF TDLAS | |
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− | + | TABLE 7 PRODUCERS OF DEVICES FOR TDLAS | |
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====2.1.2.5 Non Dispersive Infra-Red sensor (NDIR)==== | ====2.1.2.5 Non Dispersive Infra-Red sensor (NDIR)==== | ||
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NDIR is a technique that has a long track record in this community. In NDIR, an infrared lamp shines the light through a tube filled with sample of air. Gas molecules in the experimental tube absorb the light of the wavelength matching with the size of gas molecules according to Beer-Lambert Law. The detector measures the attenuation of the wavelengths in order to determine the gas concentration. The detector is equipped with the optical filter that removes all light wavelengths, except the wavelengths that are absorbed by the gas of interest (Hummelga et al. 2015). | NDIR is a technique that has a long track record in this community. In NDIR, an infrared lamp shines the light through a tube filled with sample of air. Gas molecules in the experimental tube absorb the light of the wavelength matching with the size of gas molecules according to Beer-Lambert Law. The detector measures the attenuation of the wavelengths in order to determine the gas concentration. The detector is equipped with the optical filter that removes all light wavelengths, except the wavelengths that are absorbed by the gas of interest (Hummelga et al. 2015). | ||
− | + | TABLE8STRENGTHANDLIMITATIONSOFNDIR | |
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− | + | TABLE9COMPANIESPRODUCINGNDIR | |
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====2.1.2.6 Cavity ring down spectroscopy (CRDS)==== | ====2.1.2.6 Cavity ring down spectroscopy (CRDS)==== | ||
CRDS is a technique that is a part of TDLAS family. Contrary to traditional adsorption techniques measuring the absolute change in light intensity after passing the light beam through the certain volume of sample, CRDS technique is based on the measurements of light intensity decay rate, exiting from a high-finesse optical cavity (Berden et al. 2010). By using cavity resonance to reach the light intensity threshold before switching the laser off and measuring the time of light decay. CRDS technique are less sensitive to variations in laser source intensity. In addition, CRDS techniques reveal excellent sensitivity since the reflectivity of the closed optical cavity yields much longer effective sample path length (up to several km). | CRDS is a technique that is a part of TDLAS family. Contrary to traditional adsorption techniques measuring the absolute change in light intensity after passing the light beam through the certain volume of sample, CRDS technique is based on the measurements of light intensity decay rate, exiting from a high-finesse optical cavity (Berden et al. 2010). By using cavity resonance to reach the light intensity threshold before switching the laser off and measuring the time of light decay. CRDS technique are less sensitive to variations in laser source intensity. In addition, CRDS techniques reveal excellent sensitivity since the reflectivity of the closed optical cavity yields much longer effective sample path length (up to several km). | ||
+ | TABLE 10 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATION OF CRDS | ||
− | + | TABLE 11 PRODUCERS OF DEVICES FOR CRDS | |
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====2.1.2.7 Light Detection and Ranging/Discovery and Launch (LIDAR/DIAL)==== | ====2.1.2.7 Light Detection and Ranging/Discovery and Launch (LIDAR/DIAL)==== | ||
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LIDAR is the method of remote atmospheric sensing based on the measuring the distance to the target by illuminating the target with the pulsing laser light and measuring the reflected light impulses. LIDAR does not require the establishment of line of sight or installation of retro- reflectors. DIAL is a special application of LIDAR, proposed to locate and measure the concentrations of pollutants in the atmosphere (Browell et al. 1998). The device sends the pulsing laser beam, alternating between two wavelengths, to the region of interest in the atmosphere. Upon reaching the region of measurements, the light of one wavelength is adsorbed by the compound of interest or scattered at reduced intensity, while the light of another wavelength is scattered elastically. This scattered light is collected by receiving optics, analysed and used to determine the concentration and location of the pollutant. The light of the wavelength, scattered at reduced intensity, is used to determine the concentration of substance of interest, while the light scattered elastically is used to measure background light scattering. Location of pollutant can be measured based on the delay of backscattered light to the detector. Raman LIDAR technique is seen as potentially interesting for CO2 measurements. A prototype has been developed in China and is capable to measure CO2 atmospheric concentrations, with night-time measurement limitations (Zhao et al. 2008). | LIDAR is the method of remote atmospheric sensing based on the measuring the distance to the target by illuminating the target with the pulsing laser light and measuring the reflected light impulses. LIDAR does not require the establishment of line of sight or installation of retro- reflectors. DIAL is a special application of LIDAR, proposed to locate and measure the concentrations of pollutants in the atmosphere (Browell et al. 1998). The device sends the pulsing laser beam, alternating between two wavelengths, to the region of interest in the atmosphere. Upon reaching the region of measurements, the light of one wavelength is adsorbed by the compound of interest or scattered at reduced intensity, while the light of another wavelength is scattered elastically. This scattered light is collected by receiving optics, analysed and used to determine the concentration and location of the pollutant. The light of the wavelength, scattered at reduced intensity, is used to determine the concentration of substance of interest, while the light scattered elastically is used to measure background light scattering. Location of pollutant can be measured based on the delay of backscattered light to the detector. Raman LIDAR technique is seen as potentially interesting for CO2 measurements. A prototype has been developed in China and is capable to measure CO2 atmospheric concentrations, with night-time measurement limitations (Zhao et al. 2008). | ||
− | + | TABLE 12 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF LIDAR/DIAL | |
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− | + | TABLE13PRODUCERSOFDEVICESFORLIDAR | |
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===2.1.3 Emerging techniques for GHG measurements=== | ===2.1.3 Emerging techniques for GHG measurements=== | ||
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Traditional spectroscopy techniques detect light intensity to determine the concentration of gas. In contrast, LDS (Daghestani et al 2014) uses the phase of light for these purposes. This makes the LDS technique highly insensitive to the intensity fluctuations. Thus, LDS technique can perform precise real time measurements of trace gas molecules in “dirty” environments, where intensity fluctuations may result from soot, fog or other interceptors of the optical path. LDS technique can detect the contaminants in broad range (ppb to percentage level), since the dispersion approach shows linear response over a broad concentration range. | Traditional spectroscopy techniques detect light intensity to determine the concentration of gas. In contrast, LDS (Daghestani et al 2014) uses the phase of light for these purposes. This makes the LDS technique highly insensitive to the intensity fluctuations. Thus, LDS technique can perform precise real time measurements of trace gas molecules in “dirty” environments, where intensity fluctuations may result from soot, fog or other interceptors of the optical path. LDS technique can detect the contaminants in broad range (ppb to percentage level), since the dispersion approach shows linear response over a broad concentration range. | ||
− | + | TABLE 14 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF LDS | |
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− | + | TABLE 15 PRODUCERS OF DEVICES FOR LDS | |
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====2.1.3.3 Laser Photoacoustic Spectroscopy (LPAS)==== | ====2.1.3.3 Laser Photoacoustic Spectroscopy (LPAS)==== | ||
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Photoacoustic Spectroscopy is a technique, based on the measurements of the acoustic effects, emerging during absorption of light by the analysed matter (gas). Upon radiation of gas by light, the temperature of gas increases, leading to a periodic expansion and contraction of gas volume, synchronous with the modulation frequency of radiation. This generates a pressure wave (sound) that can be detected by the microphone (Dumitras et al. 2007). Intensity of generated sound is proportional to the light intensity, and that is why laser light sources are widely applied in this technique. Even though the technique was applied for atmospheric measurements more than 30 years ago (Meyer, Sigrist 1990), the technology is significantly advancing due to the development of new laser sources (Gondal et al. 2012; Wang and Wang 2016) and other parts of experimental set-ups, such as resonators (Tavakoli et al. 2010). | Photoacoustic Spectroscopy is a technique, based on the measurements of the acoustic effects, emerging during absorption of light by the analysed matter (gas). Upon radiation of gas by light, the temperature of gas increases, leading to a periodic expansion and contraction of gas volume, synchronous with the modulation frequency of radiation. This generates a pressure wave (sound) that can be detected by the microphone (Dumitras et al. 2007). Intensity of generated sound is proportional to the light intensity, and that is why laser light sources are widely applied in this technique. Even though the technique was applied for atmospheric measurements more than 30 years ago (Meyer, Sigrist 1990), the technology is significantly advancing due to the development of new laser sources (Gondal et al. 2012; Wang and Wang 2016) and other parts of experimental set-ups, such as resonators (Tavakoli et al. 2010). | ||
− | + | TABLE 16 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF LPAS | |
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− | + | TABLE 17 PRODUCERS OF DEVICES FOR LPAS | |
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===2.1.4 Development of GHG sensors market=== | ===2.1.4 Development of GHG sensors market=== | ||
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Condensation particle counters are normally used to measure the total particle concentrations in aerosol (Kesten et al. 1991). In the continuous flow diffusion CPC, ambient aerosol enters in the device chamber through the inlet and is exposed to a supersaturated vapour of a working fluid. This exposure results in the rapid growth of particles, which after that are exposed to the light of laser. Scattered light of laser is detected by photodiode and the individual particles are counted. Based on the amount of calculated particles and known flow of gas through the system, one can calculate the total number concentration in the aerosol. | Condensation particle counters are normally used to measure the total particle concentrations in aerosol (Kesten et al. 1991). In the continuous flow diffusion CPC, ambient aerosol enters in the device chamber through the inlet and is exposed to a supersaturated vapour of a working fluid. This exposure results in the rapid growth of particles, which after that are exposed to the light of laser. Scattered light of laser is detected by photodiode and the individual particles are counted. Based on the amount of calculated particles and known flow of gas through the system, one can calculate the total number concentration in the aerosol. | ||
− | + | TABLE 18 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATION OF CPC | |
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− | + | TABLE 19 COMPANIES PRODUCING CPC | |
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=====2.2.2.1.2 Passive Cavity Aerosol Spectroscopy Probe (PCASP)===== | =====2.2.2.1.2 Passive Cavity Aerosol Spectroscopy Probe (PCASP)===== | ||
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PCASP is one of the few techniques dedicated to the measurements of particle number concentrations as a function of size in situ, while being mounted on the exterior of the aircraft (Jonsson et al. 1995). The instrument measures the intensity of light scattered from the individual particles within the aerosol, which pass through a focused laser beam. PCASP collect side scattered light, the collected light being proportional to the to the particle size. Particle number concentration is derived from measured particle size, knowing the particle refractive index, shape and wavelength of the incident light. | PCASP is one of the few techniques dedicated to the measurements of particle number concentrations as a function of size in situ, while being mounted on the exterior of the aircraft (Jonsson et al. 1995). The instrument measures the intensity of light scattered from the individual particles within the aerosol, which pass through a focused laser beam. PCASP collect side scattered light, the collected light being proportional to the to the particle size. Particle number concentration is derived from measured particle size, knowing the particle refractive index, shape and wavelength of the incident light. | ||
− | + | TABLE 20 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF PCASP | |
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− | + | TABLE 21 PRODUCERS OF DEVICES FOR PCASP | |
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====2.2.2.2 Aerosol optical properties==== | ====2.2.2.2 Aerosol optical properties==== | ||
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Photoacoustic absorption spectroscopy is the technique that determines the absorption coefficient, through the measurement of sound, produced on radiation of aerosol particles by laser light (Lack et al. 2006). Part of incoming laser intensity is scattered or transmitted, while the remaining fraction is absorbed by either by light absorbing particles or surrounding gas, Absorbed radiation generated particle heating and increase in pressure, detected by sensitive microphone. Photoacoustic spectrometers have fast response time and are well fitted for airborne applications. A similar technique is used by photoacoustic extinctiometers to measure also scattering coefficient. | Photoacoustic absorption spectroscopy is the technique that determines the absorption coefficient, through the measurement of sound, produced on radiation of aerosol particles by laser light (Lack et al. 2006). Part of incoming laser intensity is scattered or transmitted, while the remaining fraction is absorbed by either by light absorbing particles or surrounding gas, Absorbed radiation generated particle heating and increase in pressure, detected by sensitive microphone. Photoacoustic spectrometers have fast response time and are well fitted for airborne applications. A similar technique is used by photoacoustic extinctiometers to measure also scattering coefficient. | ||
− | + | TABLE22STRENGTHSANDLIMITATIONSOFPAS/PAX | |
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− | + | TABLE 23 PRODUCERS OF DEVICES FOR PAS | |
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=====2.2.2.2.2 Absorption photometers/aethalometer===== | =====2.2.2.2.2 Absorption photometers/aethalometer===== | ||
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Absorption photometers (or aethalometers) are devices that determine the light absorption coefficient of aerosols through the measurement of transmissivity of a filter that is gradually loaded with particles (Arnot et al. 2005). They usually employ light sources at several wavelengths from the UV to near IR. Most of the available commercial instruments use systems for automatic change of the filter when transmissivity is below a critical level, while some of them measure also the backscattered light in order to compensate the final measurement for this effect. Some instruments provide directly the value of the equivalent black carbon (in gram per cubic meter) that would produce this absorption, through the assumption of a specific absorption coefficient per unit mass. | Absorption photometers (or aethalometers) are devices that determine the light absorption coefficient of aerosols through the measurement of transmissivity of a filter that is gradually loaded with particles (Arnot et al. 2005). They usually employ light sources at several wavelengths from the UV to near IR. Most of the available commercial instruments use systems for automatic change of the filter when transmissivity is below a critical level, while some of them measure also the backscattered light in order to compensate the final measurement for this effect. Some instruments provide directly the value of the equivalent black carbon (in gram per cubic meter) that would produce this absorption, through the assumption of a specific absorption coefficient per unit mass. | ||
− | + | TABLE24STRENGTHSANDLIMITATIONSOFABSORPTIONPHOTOMETERS/AETHALOMETERS | |
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− | + | TABLE 25 COMPANIES PRODUCING ABSORPTION PHOTOMETERS/AETHALOMETERS | |
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=====2.2.2.2.3 Nephelometers===== | =====2.2.2.2.3 Nephelometers===== | ||
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Nephelometers are instrument devoted to the measurement of the scattering coefficient of the aerosol particles (Heintzenberg and Charlson 1996). They usually work following the so- called inverse method, that is, they measure the light scattered the particles in a specific direction and that was emitted by a (hemi)-spherical source. It is inverse in the sense that the scattering coefficient refers to the light scattered in any direction and coming from a very narrow one. They can operate at one or more wavelengths, from UV to near IR. They need periodic calibration with standard gas, such as CO2. | Nephelometers are instrument devoted to the measurement of the scattering coefficient of the aerosol particles (Heintzenberg and Charlson 1996). They usually work following the so- called inverse method, that is, they measure the light scattered the particles in a specific direction and that was emitted by a (hemi)-spherical source. It is inverse in the sense that the scattering coefficient refers to the light scattered in any direction and coming from a very narrow one. They can operate at one or more wavelengths, from UV to near IR. They need periodic calibration with standard gas, such as CO2. | ||
− | + | TABLE26STRENGTHSANDLIMITATIONSOFNEPHELOMETERS | |
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− | + | TABLE 27 COMPANIES PRODUCING NEPHELOMETERS | |
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=====2.2.2.2.4 LIDARs===== | =====2.2.2.2.4 LIDARs===== | ||
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Atmospheric LIDAR is a class of instruments that uses laser light to study atmospheric properties from the ground up to the top of the atmosphere (Kavaya and Menzies 1985). Such instruments have been used to study, among other, atmospheric gases, aerosols, clouds, and temperature. The transmission unit consists of a laser source, followed by a series of mirrors, and a beam expander, which sends the collimated light beam vertically up to the open atmosphere. Part of the transmitted radiation is scattered by atmospheric components (i.e., gases, molecules, aerosols, clouds) backward to the LIDAR, where a telescope collects it. The backscattered light is driven to an optical analyser where the optical signal is first spectrally separated, amplified and transformed to an electrical signal. Finally, the signal is digitized and stored in a computer unit. While knowing the aerosol properties (forward problem) and predicting the LIDAR signal is a straightforward calculation, the inverse process is mathematically ill-posed (i.e., non-unique and incomplete solution space), showing a strong sensitivity on input uncertainties. | Atmospheric LIDAR is a class of instruments that uses laser light to study atmospheric properties from the ground up to the top of the atmosphere (Kavaya and Menzies 1985). Such instruments have been used to study, among other, atmospheric gases, aerosols, clouds, and temperature. The transmission unit consists of a laser source, followed by a series of mirrors, and a beam expander, which sends the collimated light beam vertically up to the open atmosphere. Part of the transmitted radiation is scattered by atmospheric components (i.e., gases, molecules, aerosols, clouds) backward to the LIDAR, where a telescope collects it. The backscattered light is driven to an optical analyser where the optical signal is first spectrally separated, amplified and transformed to an electrical signal. Finally, the signal is digitized and stored in a computer unit. While knowing the aerosol properties (forward problem) and predicting the LIDAR signal is a straightforward calculation, the inverse process is mathematically ill-posed (i.e., non-unique and incomplete solution space), showing a strong sensitivity on input uncertainties. | ||
− | + | TABLE 28 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF LIDARS | |
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− | + | TABLE 29 COMPANIES PRODUCING LIDARS | |
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====2.2.2.3 Aerosol chemical properties==== | ====2.2.2.3 Aerosol chemical properties==== | ||
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TOF-AMS is used to study the chemical and physical nature of aerosol particles online and is constructed as a combination of AMS vacuum system, particle focusing, sizing and evaporation/ionization components with a compact orthogonal acceleration reflection time-of-flight spectrometer (De Carlo et al. 2006). Aerosol particles in the size range of 0.04 to 1.0 micrometres are sampled into a high vacuum system where they are focused into a narrow beam. This beam is then directed via ionization quadrupole mass spectrometry. Particle aerodynamic diameter is determined from particle time of flight (velocity) measurements using a beam chopping technique. | TOF-AMS is used to study the chemical and physical nature of aerosol particles online and is constructed as a combination of AMS vacuum system, particle focusing, sizing and evaporation/ionization components with a compact orthogonal acceleration reflection time-of-flight spectrometer (De Carlo et al. 2006). Aerosol particles in the size range of 0.04 to 1.0 micrometres are sampled into a high vacuum system where they are focused into a narrow beam. This beam is then directed via ionization quadrupole mass spectrometry. Particle aerodynamic diameter is determined from particle time of flight (velocity) measurements using a beam chopping technique. | ||
− | + | TABLE30STRENGTHSANDLIMITATIONSOFTOF-AMS | |
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− | + | TABLE 31 PRODUCERS OF DEVICES FOR TOF-AMS | |
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====2.2.2.4 Aerosol size distribution==== | ====2.2.2.4 Aerosol size distribution==== | ||
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A high intensity light source is used to illuminate the particle as it passes through the detection chamber. The particle passes through the light source (typically a laser or halogen light) and the redirected light is detected by a photodetector. The amplitude of the light scattered is measured and the particle is counted and tabulated into standardized counting bins, after assumption of the refractive index of the particles (Snider and Petters 2008) | A high intensity light source is used to illuminate the particle as it passes through the detection chamber. The particle passes through the light source (typically a laser or halogen light) and the redirected light is detected by a photodetector. The amplitude of the light scattered is measured and the particle is counted and tabulated into standardized counting bins, after assumption of the refractive index of the particles (Snider and Petters 2008) | ||
− | + | TABLE 32 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF OPTICAL PARTICLE COUNTERS | |
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− | + | TABLE 33 COMPANIES PRODUCING OPTICAL PARTICLE COUNTERS | |
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=====2.2.2.4.2 Differential Mobility Particle Sizer (DMPS)===== | =====2.2.2.4.2 Differential Mobility Particle Sizer (DMPS)===== | ||
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Differential mobility particle sizing is an alternative to the optical sizing technique for measurement of submicron aerosol size distributions (Wiedensohler et al. 2012). Differential mobility techniques are able to measure much smaller particles, down to 2.5nm and are not sensitive to differences in refractive index, but are not able to achieve the same temporal resolution as optical instruments, and are also sensitive to variations in particle shape. The Differential Mobility Particle Sizer (DMPS) couples a differential mobility analyser, which classifies charged particles according to their mobility in an electric field, and a condensation particle counter (CPC) to count particles of a specific mobility. Other instruments using variations on this technique include the SMPS and HTDMA. | Differential mobility particle sizing is an alternative to the optical sizing technique for measurement of submicron aerosol size distributions (Wiedensohler et al. 2012). Differential mobility techniques are able to measure much smaller particles, down to 2.5nm and are not sensitive to differences in refractive index, but are not able to achieve the same temporal resolution as optical instruments, and are also sensitive to variations in particle shape. The Differential Mobility Particle Sizer (DMPS) couples a differential mobility analyser, which classifies charged particles according to their mobility in an electric field, and a condensation particle counter (CPC) to count particles of a specific mobility. Other instruments using variations on this technique include the SMPS and HTDMA. | ||
− | + | TABLE 34 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL MOBILITY PARTICLE SIZER | |
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− | + | TABLE 35 PRODUCERS OF DEVICES FOR DMPS | |
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=====2.2.2.4.3 Aerodynamic Particle Sizer===== | =====2.2.2.4.3 Aerodynamic Particle Sizer===== | ||
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The aerodynamic particle sizer uses the principle of inertia to size particles (Wang and John 1987). In this instrument the particle and sheath flow are constricted through a nozzle, accelerating the airflow. Particles within the airflow are also accelerated, but by different amounts depending on particle surface area and mass, thus particles exiting the jet have a velocity related to their aerodynamic diameter. Aerodynamic diameter is defined assuming spherical particles and unity density. The APS measures particle velocity by passing the particles through two laser beams separated by about 200 microns. A particle passing through both beams produces two pulses of scattered light, the time delay between the pulses being related to the velocity and hence aerodynamic diameter of the particle. | The aerodynamic particle sizer uses the principle of inertia to size particles (Wang and John 1987). In this instrument the particle and sheath flow are constricted through a nozzle, accelerating the airflow. Particles within the airflow are also accelerated, but by different amounts depending on particle surface area and mass, thus particles exiting the jet have a velocity related to their aerodynamic diameter. Aerodynamic diameter is defined assuming spherical particles and unity density. The APS measures particle velocity by passing the particles through two laser beams separated by about 200 microns. A particle passing through both beams produces two pulses of scattered light, the time delay between the pulses being related to the velocity and hence aerodynamic diameter of the particle. | ||
− | + | TABLE 36 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF AERODYNAMIC PARTICLE SIZER | |
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− | + | TABLE 37 COMPANIES PRODUCING AERODYNAMIC PARTICLE SIZER | |
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===2.2.3 Emerging technologies for aerosol properties measurements=== | ===2.2.3 Emerging technologies for aerosol properties measurements=== | ||
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Budke at al 2008 described a novel device for ice nucleation measurements based on the following principles. Turbulent mixing of cold dry air with warm humid air is performed in the Fast Ice Nucleus Chamber. Resulting ice particles with the size over 4 μm formed during 10 s of experimental time are separated from the droplets based on their individual circular depolarization properties and counted by an optical detector. Biological fraction is measured by special fluorescence channel. | Budke at al 2008 described a novel device for ice nucleation measurements based on the following principles. Turbulent mixing of cold dry air with warm humid air is performed in the Fast Ice Nucleus Chamber. Resulting ice particles with the size over 4 μm formed during 10 s of experimental time are separated from the droplets based on their individual circular depolarization properties and counted by an optical detector. Biological fraction is measured by special fluorescence channel. | ||
− | + | TABLE 38 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF ICE NUCLEATION DETECTION | |
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====2.2.3.2 Measurements of particle morphology ==== | ====2.2.3.2 Measurements of particle morphology ==== | ||
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Aerosol Particle Spectrometer with Depolarization (APSD) measures light scattered at two angles from individual particles and the extent at which these particles rotate the incident plane of polarization when they pass through a focused laser beam. The amount of scattered light is used to determine the particle size using Mie theory, while the direction of scattered light is used to determine the deviation of particles shape from sphere. | Aerosol Particle Spectrometer with Depolarization (APSD) measures light scattered at two angles from individual particles and the extent at which these particles rotate the incident plane of polarization when they pass through a focused laser beam. The amount of scattered light is used to determine the particle size using Mie theory, while the direction of scattered light is used to determine the deviation of particles shape from sphere. | ||
− | + | TABLE 39 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF APSD | |
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===2.2.4 Development of market of aerosols measurements=== | ===2.2.4 Development of market of aerosols measurements=== | ||
− | Aerosols impair visibility, affect ecosystem processes and can deposit onto surfaces, damaging materials. They also make an impact on climate change: most particles are reflective and lead to net cooling, while some, especially black carbon particles, absorb energy and promote global warming. Breathing particulate matter/ aerosols can cause coughing, difficulties in breathing, irregular heartbeat, nonfatal heart attacks, aggravated asthma, and decreased lung functioning and general irritation of airways. It can be a reason of premature death of people with heart or lung disease, as well as general decrease of life quality of exposed population. This is causing increased demand for the medical services and care, meaning additional healthcare expenses for the governments and local authorities. | + | Aerosols impair visibility, affect ecosystem processes and can deposit onto surfaces, damaging materials. They also make an impact on climate change: most particles are reflective and lead to net cooling, while some, especially black carbon particles, absorb energy and promote global warming. Breathing particulate matter/ aerosols can cause coughing, difficulties in breathing, irregular heartbeat, nonfatal heart attacks, aggravated asthma, and decreased lung functioning and general irritation of airways. It can be a reason of premature death of people with heart or lung disease, as well as general decrease of life quality of exposed population. |
+ | This is causing increased demand for the medical services and care, meaning additional healthcare expenses for the governments and local authorities. | ||
Keeping in mind the above mentioned problems, local and state authorities would be the first in the list of parties, interested in monitoring and preventing air pollution with aerosols, both those, appearing due to the natural reasons, for example sandstorms, or forest fires and due the anthropogenic activity. State authorities would also be interested in development the legislation that would oblige large industrial and energy providers to monitor their fluxes of aerosols and analyse their composition. Thus, we believe that the main markets for the aerosol measurement devices will be: | Keeping in mind the above mentioned problems, local and state authorities would be the first in the list of parties, interested in monitoring and preventing air pollution with aerosols, both those, appearing due to the natural reasons, for example sandstorms, or forest fires and due the anthropogenic activity. State authorities would also be interested in development the legislation that would oblige large industrial and energy providers to monitor their fluxes of aerosols and analyse their composition. Thus, we believe that the main markets for the aerosol measurement devices will be: | ||
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Increased concern of people about their health will increase the amount of private and state- funded research projects, dedicated to the investigations of aerosols, especially in the urban areas. Thus, we also expect universities and private companies to become strong consumers of sensors for aerosol measurement. | Increased concern of people about their health will increase the amount of private and state- funded research projects, dedicated to the investigations of aerosols, especially in the urban areas. Thus, we also expect universities and private companies to become strong consumers of sensors for aerosol measurement. | ||
− | Measurement responses of modern devices for aerosol measurements depend largely on aerosol properties including particle shape, composition and density. These parameters may vary significantly depending on the type of aerosol, often remain unknown and bring significant uncertainties to the measurements. Thus, we think that more effort needs to be taken to improve measurement accuracies for realistic atmospheric samples. The measurement of organic species in atmospheric particles requires additional development. Atmospheric aerosols normally include dozens of organic compounds, and only a small fraction (∼10%) of these can be detected and identified by modern analytical methodologies. Total particulate organic carbon mass concentration measurements is another challenge due to the difficulties in determination of evaporative losses during sampling, adsorption of gas- phase organic compounds onto sampling substrates and the unknown relations between carbon mass and mass of the particulate organics. The development of improved methodologies for such measurements should be a high priority for the future. The new models of mass spectrometers capable of measuring the composition of individual particles have recently been developed. These instruments have to be improved to provide quantitative information on species mass concentrations, and more work is needed to perform routine interpretation of large datasets generated during field sampling. | + | Measurement responses of modern devices for aerosol measurements depend largely on aerosol properties including particle shape, composition and density. These parameters may vary significantly depending on the type of aerosol, often remain unknown and bring significant uncertainties to the measurements. Thus, we think that more effort needs to be taken to improve measurement accuracies for realistic atmospheric samples. The measurement of organic species in atmospheric particles requires additional development. Atmospheric aerosols normally include dozens of organic compounds, and only a small fraction (∼10%) of these can be detected and identified by modern analytical methodologies. Total particulate organic carbon mass concentration measurements is another challenge due to the difficulties in determination of evaporative losses during sampling, adsorption of gas- phase organic compounds onto sampling substrates and the unknown relations between carbon mass and mass of the particulate organics. The development of improved methodologies for such measurements should be a high priority for the future. The new models of mass spectrometers capable of measuring the composition of individual particles have recently been developed. These instruments have to be improved to provide quantitative information on species mass concentrations, and more work is needed to perform routine interpretation of large datasets generated during field sampling. |
=3 Measurements of land biosphere parameters= | =3 Measurements of land biosphere parameters= | ||
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This technique is employed to measure exchanges between the surface (i.e.: ecosystem, including vegetation and soil) and the atmosphere. | This technique is employed to measure exchanges between the surface (i.e.: ecosystem, including vegetation and soil) and the atmosphere. | ||
− | + | FIGURE 2 EDDY-COVARIANCE TECHNIQUE ON-SITE | |
It can be used, for example, to measure how much a given surface is either a sink or a source for a greenhouse gas such as CO2 or any other species that can be sampled with a sufficiently fast time response. The technique is based on fast (10 Hz or more) measurements of both three dimensional wind velocity (atmospheric turbulence, usually done through an ultrasonic anemometer) and atmospheric concentration of the chemical species of interests (generally CO2, CH4 and N2O in addition to energy). These two measurements can be related together following a specific mathematical approach to yield a flux with a high temporal resolution and integrated at ecosystem scale (1 km2). | It can be used, for example, to measure how much a given surface is either a sink or a source for a greenhouse gas such as CO2 or any other species that can be sampled with a sufficiently fast time response. The technique is based on fast (10 Hz or more) measurements of both three dimensional wind velocity (atmospheric turbulence, usually done through an ultrasonic anemometer) and atmospheric concentration of the chemical species of interests (generally CO2, CH4 and N2O in addition to energy). These two measurements can be related together following a specific mathematical approach to yield a flux with a high temporal resolution and integrated at ecosystem scale (1 km2). | ||
− | + | TABLE 40 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF EDDY COVARIANCE TECHNIQUE | |
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− | + | TABLE 41 PRODUCERS OF DEVICES BASED ON EDDY COVARIANCE TECHNIQUE | |
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===3.2.2 Spectral imaging=== | ===3.2.2 Spectral imaging=== | ||
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Special cameras investigating wavelengths different from (or in addition to) the visible ones can give much more information about vegetation status. They are tools of great importance especially in precision agriculture since they allow investigating if there are specific areas where the plants are stressed due, for example, lack of water or the presence of pathogens. These tools work on the principle that plants are living breathing organisms therefore having different temperatures and spectral characteristics from the non-living background. This happens because they absorb light in specific wavelengths (the photosynthetic active radiation window, between 400 and 700 nanometres) and reflect it in various spectral regions (especially in the near infrared above 780 nanometres) according to biophysical properties of the vegetation. Stresses alters such plant responses and are therefore detectable with thermal (in the long-wave spectral domain) and multispectral (in the short-wave spectral domain) imaging, allowing a precise identification of critical situations where it is possible to intervene to improve agricultural practices. | Special cameras investigating wavelengths different from (or in addition to) the visible ones can give much more information about vegetation status. They are tools of great importance especially in precision agriculture since they allow investigating if there are specific areas where the plants are stressed due, for example, lack of water or the presence of pathogens. These tools work on the principle that plants are living breathing organisms therefore having different temperatures and spectral characteristics from the non-living background. This happens because they absorb light in specific wavelengths (the photosynthetic active radiation window, between 400 and 700 nanometres) and reflect it in various spectral regions (especially in the near infrared above 780 nanometres) according to biophysical properties of the vegetation. Stresses alters such plant responses and are therefore detectable with thermal (in the long-wave spectral domain) and multispectral (in the short-wave spectral domain) imaging, allowing a precise identification of critical situations where it is possible to intervene to improve agricultural practices. | ||
− | + | TABLE 42 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF SPECTRAL IMAGING | |
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− | + | TABLE 43 PRODUCERS OF DEVICES FOR SPECTRAL IMAGING | |
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====3.2.2.1 Proton-transfer-reactionmassspectrometry(PTR-MS)==== | ====3.2.2.1 Proton-transfer-reactionmassspectrometry(PTR-MS)==== | ||
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The technique has been recently enhanced by coupling the proton transfer reaction to a time of flight mass spectrometer (PTR-TOF-MS). This yields a higher resolving power and better duty cycle. All ions are detected at once without having to cycle on different mass-to-charge ratios for detection as it happens in the PTR-MS. | The technique has been recently enhanced by coupling the proton transfer reaction to a time of flight mass spectrometer (PTR-TOF-MS). This yields a higher resolving power and better duty cycle. All ions are detected at once without having to cycle on different mass-to-charge ratios for detection as it happens in the PTR-MS. | ||
− | + | TABLE 44 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF PTR-MS | |
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− | + | TABLE 45 PRODUCERS OF DEVICES FOR PTR-MS | |
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==3.3 Emerging Technologies: Fluorescence== | ==3.3 Emerging Technologies: Fluorescence== | ||
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Photosynthesis is the key mechanism with which biosphere fixates (“absorbs”) CO2 from the atmosphere. Any change in gross photosynthesis will be reflected on the whole carbon cycle and, therefore, photosynthesis prediction is becoming a priority effort. Photosynthetic rates can also give information about plant growth and ecosystem productivity and therefore feedback mechanisms between vegetation, atmosphere and climate. Photosynthesis measurements are already commercially available for single leaves or very small canopies. It employs mainly two methods of measurements: either measuring on a small scale the CO2 exchange with the atmosphere (mainly produced by LICOR), either measuring the fluorescence emitted by the vegetation in specific wavelength due to the molecular mechanisms involved in the photosynthetic and energy dissipation processes (mainly produced by Walz). The latter method uses LED pulsating a certain frequencies followed by a spectral readout from the plant. This system is manageable at leaf scale, but its active principle (based on an excitation-response mechanism) is not applicable far from the plant canopy. Recently, though, a new ESA mission will launch a satellite, FLEX, in 2022 that will be able to use passive method for quantifying plant fluorescence (e.g SIF, Solar Induced Fluorescence). Plant photosynthesis will therefore enter a whole new scenario in which remote sensing will start playing an important role. The technology employed by such new observation satellite is actually being developed as aircraft payload by the Forschnungszentrum Jülich and the Specim Company, and will be commercially available for ground or aircraft-based biosphere measurements. | Photosynthesis is the key mechanism with which biosphere fixates (“absorbs”) CO2 from the atmosphere. Any change in gross photosynthesis will be reflected on the whole carbon cycle and, therefore, photosynthesis prediction is becoming a priority effort. Photosynthetic rates can also give information about plant growth and ecosystem productivity and therefore feedback mechanisms between vegetation, atmosphere and climate. Photosynthesis measurements are already commercially available for single leaves or very small canopies. It employs mainly two methods of measurements: either measuring on a small scale the CO2 exchange with the atmosphere (mainly produced by LICOR), either measuring the fluorescence emitted by the vegetation in specific wavelength due to the molecular mechanisms involved in the photosynthetic and energy dissipation processes (mainly produced by Walz). The latter method uses LED pulsating a certain frequencies followed by a spectral readout from the plant. This system is manageable at leaf scale, but its active principle (based on an excitation-response mechanism) is not applicable far from the plant canopy. Recently, though, a new ESA mission will launch a satellite, FLEX, in 2022 that will be able to use passive method for quantifying plant fluorescence (e.g SIF, Solar Induced Fluorescence). Plant photosynthesis will therefore enter a whole new scenario in which remote sensing will start playing an important role. The technology employed by such new observation satellite is actually being developed as aircraft payload by the Forschnungszentrum Jülich and the Specim Company, and will be commercially available for ground or aircraft-based biosphere measurements. | ||
− | + | TABLE 46 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF FLUORESCENCE MEASUREMENT OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS | |
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− | + | TABLE 47 PRODUCERS OF DEVICES FOR FLUORESCENCE MEASUREMENT OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS | |
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− | ===3.3.2 Fluorescence Measurements of Microorganisms | + | ===3.3.2 Fluorescence Measurements of Microorganisms |
Land Biosphere measurements of microorganisms emitted from the plant canopy generally using a combination of meteorological measurements (such as radiation, wind speed and temperature, either as single-point measurement or profiles) and quantitative microbiological techniques (for more information see Despres et al., 2012 and Carotenuto et al., 2017). | Land Biosphere measurements of microorganisms emitted from the plant canopy generally using a combination of meteorological measurements (such as radiation, wind speed and temperature, either as single-point measurement or profiles) and quantitative microbiological techniques (for more information see Despres et al., 2012 and Carotenuto et al., 2017). | ||
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In the past years, though, a new technology is emerging that would be able to quantify microorganisms in real time. This is done through special aerosol samplers that not only determine physical characteristics of aerosols (such as size and asymmetry) but also response in fluorescence wavelengths related to organic molecules (such as NADH and the amino-acid tryptophan). Each aerosol particle is quickly illuminated (“flashed”) by exciting emitters and appropriate detectors collect the fluorescence response. The combination of such information allows discriminating between inorganic aerosols, bacteria, fungi, etc. measuring the organic fraction that can potentially rise up in the atmosphere and act as biological ice or cloud condensation nuclei. | In the past years, though, a new technology is emerging that would be able to quantify microorganisms in real time. This is done through special aerosol samplers that not only determine physical characteristics of aerosols (such as size and asymmetry) but also response in fluorescence wavelengths related to organic molecules (such as NADH and the amino-acid tryptophan). Each aerosol particle is quickly illuminated (“flashed”) by exciting emitters and appropriate detectors collect the fluorescence response. The combination of such information allows discriminating between inorganic aerosols, bacteria, fungi, etc. measuring the organic fraction that can potentially rise up in the atmosphere and act as biological ice or cloud condensation nuclei. | ||
− | + | TABLE 48 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF FLUORESCENCE MEASUREMENTS OF MICROORGANISMS | |
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− | + | TABLE 49 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF FLUORESCENCE MEASUREMENTS OF MICROORGANISMS | |
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==3.4 Market overview== | ==3.4 Market overview== | ||
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The METS methane sensor was presented in 1999, as the first sensor for underwater methane monitoring and detection, using a gas-permeable membrane with tin-oxide (SnO2) semiconductor detection. It is described as being able to detect methane in the concentration range 50 nM–10 μM in its standard version, and up to 2 mM for some versions. It can perform at water depths down to 3500 m and temperatures of 2–40°C. The METS sensor has been widely used for the detection of methane-rich plume signals in the water column overlying cold seep environments or for long-term monitoring. | The METS methane sensor was presented in 1999, as the first sensor for underwater methane monitoring and detection, using a gas-permeable membrane with tin-oxide (SnO2) semiconductor detection. It is described as being able to detect methane in the concentration range 50 nM–10 μM in its standard version, and up to 2 mM for some versions. It can perform at water depths down to 3500 m and temperatures of 2–40°C. The METS sensor has been widely used for the detection of methane-rich plume signals in the water column overlying cold seep environments or for long-term monitoring. | ||
− | ====4.2.2.2 HydroC sensor | + | ====4.2.2.2 HydroC sensor=== |
HydroC (Konsberg) is the sensor, comparable to the METS sensor except that the detection principle is based on direct IR absorption spectroscopy in the 3.4-μm region. This detection method does not consume methane, what simplifies calibration and reduces measurement errors in flowing fluid. The system can measure concentrations of methane in the range 30 nM–500 μm with a resolution of 3–30 nM. The T90 of the detector is quoted to be 30 s. The HydroC/CH4 was deployed in 2007 during RV Sonne cruise 190 (27/02/07– 22/03/07) and was able to measure methane plumes (10–50 nM) over the New Zealand continental margin (Contros GmBH, personal communication). | HydroC (Konsberg) is the sensor, comparable to the METS sensor except that the detection principle is based on direct IR absorption spectroscopy in the 3.4-μm region. This detection method does not consume methane, what simplifies calibration and reduces measurement errors in flowing fluid. The system can measure concentrations of methane in the range 30 nM–500 μm with a resolution of 3–30 nM. The T90 of the detector is quoted to be 30 s. The HydroC/CH4 was deployed in 2007 during RV Sonne cruise 190 (27/02/07– 22/03/07) and was able to measure methane plumes (10–50 nM) over the New Zealand continental margin (Contros GmBH, personal communication). | ||
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Optical sensors operate based on the principle of fluorescence quenching (Tengberg et al. 2006). Nowadays, the Aanderaa optodes 3835 & 4330 are the most used sensors implemented in ARGO floats, gliders and on moorings. Oxygen optodes are based on the oxygen luminescence quenching of a platinum porphyrin complex (fluorescent indicator) that is immobilized in a sensing foil. Optodes show a nonlinear decrease in luminescence decay time with increasing oxygen concentration. The signal can be linearized by means of the Stern–Volmer equation: [O2] = (τ0/τ – 1)/Ksv, where [O2] is oxygen concentration in μmol/L, τ is luminescence decay time, τ0 is the decay time in the absence of [O2], and Ksv is the Stern– Volmer constant (Demas et al. 1999). The advantages of the optical sensors are their excellent long-term stability and high precision. They also appear to be accurate provided they have sufficient time to come into equilibrium with the surrounding temperature and oxygen concentration and provided that their temperature response has been carefully calibrated (possibly by individual sensor factory-calibration plus in-situ calibration check/correction based on concomitant Winkler profile). | Optical sensors operate based on the principle of fluorescence quenching (Tengberg et al. 2006). Nowadays, the Aanderaa optodes 3835 & 4330 are the most used sensors implemented in ARGO floats, gliders and on moorings. Oxygen optodes are based on the oxygen luminescence quenching of a platinum porphyrin complex (fluorescent indicator) that is immobilized in a sensing foil. Optodes show a nonlinear decrease in luminescence decay time with increasing oxygen concentration. The signal can be linearized by means of the Stern–Volmer equation: [O2] = (τ0/τ – 1)/Ksv, where [O2] is oxygen concentration in μmol/L, τ is luminescence decay time, τ0 is the decay time in the absence of [O2], and Ksv is the Stern– Volmer constant (Demas et al. 1999). The advantages of the optical sensors are their excellent long-term stability and high precision. They also appear to be accurate provided they have sufficient time to come into equilibrium with the surrounding temperature and oxygen concentration and provided that their temperature response has been carefully calibrated (possibly by individual sensor factory-calibration plus in-situ calibration check/correction based on concomitant Winkler profile). | ||
− | =====4.2.3.2.1 | + | =====4.2.3.2.1 TheAanderaaoptodesensors3830-3835===== |
This sensors have a measuring range of 0-500 μM, a resolution of 1 μM and an accuracy of 5 μM as well as an operating depth of up to 6000 m. Due to their small size and power requirements, the first generation of optode sensors (3830/3835) have been also tested on profiling floats (Kortzinger et al. 2005). The first results obtained in 2004 demonstrated that high quality long-term oxygen measurements from ARGO floats are feasible. | This sensors have a measuring range of 0-500 μM, a resolution of 1 μM and an accuracy of 5 μM as well as an operating depth of up to 6000 m. Due to their small size and power requirements, the first generation of optode sensors (3830/3835) have been also tested on profiling floats (Kortzinger et al. 2005). The first results obtained in 2004 demonstrated that high quality long-term oxygen measurements from ARGO floats are feasible. | ||
− | + | FIGURE 3 THE AANDERAA OPTODE SENSOR ON A PROVOR FLOAT | |
=====4.2.3.2.2 The SBE 63 sensor===== | =====4.2.3.2.2 The SBE 63 sensor===== | ||
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* range of concentrations 0.1 nM - 2 mM, LOD 0.1 nM (open ocean), 0.1μM (profiling), 1-5 μM coastal/rivers and upwelling. | * range of concentrations 0.1 nM - 2 mM, LOD 0.1 nM (open ocean), 0.1μM (profiling), 1-5 μM coastal/rivers and upwelling. | ||
− | ===4.2.5 Salinity/density vs salinity/conductivity | + | ===4.2.5 Salinity/density vs salinity/conductivity== |
Salinity is the parameter that characterizes global circulation and local exchanges of water masses. It must be known to understand the spatial significance of a measurement and in many cases to correct the raw data of sensors (sound speed, chemical concentration such as nitrate). Marine sciences in general focus and rely on the assessment of “absolute salinity”. | Salinity is the parameter that characterizes global circulation and local exchanges of water masses. It must be known to understand the spatial significance of a measurement and in many cases to correct the raw data of sensors (sound speed, chemical concentration such as nitrate). Marine sciences in general focus and rely on the assessment of “absolute salinity”. | ||
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The measurements of seawater density does not face the same drawbacks as measurements of conductivity. Density may be measured through refractive index. Such measurement is based on the comparison of the deviation angle of the beam passing through two prisms of different index delimiting a seawater volume. The value of absolute salinity can be directly accessed through these measurements. A sensor called NOSS (nke Marine Electronics Optical Salinity Sensor) has been developed and validated (Le Menn et al. 2011) for the seawater density measurements. It is currently marketed by nke Marine Electronics. | The measurements of seawater density does not face the same drawbacks as measurements of conductivity. Density may be measured through refractive index. Such measurement is based on the comparison of the deviation angle of the beam passing through two prisms of different index delimiting a seawater volume. The value of absolute salinity can be directly accessed through these measurements. A sensor called NOSS (nke Marine Electronics Optical Salinity Sensor) has been developed and validated (Le Menn et al. 2011) for the seawater density measurements. It is currently marketed by nke Marine Electronics. | ||
− | + | TABLE 50 CORE SPECIFICATIONS FOR MEASURING CONDUCTIVITY | |
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===4.2.6 Turbidity/Optical Backscattering/Transmissometry=== | ===4.2.6 Turbidity/Optical Backscattering/Transmissometry=== | ||
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Optical backscatter technique can operate across a variety of wavelengths while the chosen combinations and measurement implementation determines the final measurement result. For example a single wavelength system measuring at 700 nm can quantify suspended particle concentrations within the sizes of 0,2 to 20 µm. Spikes in this signal can indicate larger particles, and the addition of other wavelengths can also expand particle quantification capability. The data obtained from optical backscattering measurements can also be calibrated to various quantities including POC concentration, using samples that are sufficiently specific. The ratio of chlorophyll-A to optical backscatter can also indicate variations in phytoplankton community. Conveniently, optical backscatter across two wavelengths and chlorophyll-a can be measured in a compact and power efficient triplet fluorescence instrument offered by Wetlabs. | Optical backscatter technique can operate across a variety of wavelengths while the chosen combinations and measurement implementation determines the final measurement result. For example a single wavelength system measuring at 700 nm can quantify suspended particle concentrations within the sizes of 0,2 to 20 µm. Spikes in this signal can indicate larger particles, and the addition of other wavelengths can also expand particle quantification capability. The data obtained from optical backscattering measurements can also be calibrated to various quantities including POC concentration, using samples that are sufficiently specific. The ratio of chlorophyll-A to optical backscatter can also indicate variations in phytoplankton community. Conveniently, optical backscatter across two wavelengths and chlorophyll-a can be measured in a compact and power efficient triplet fluorescence instrument offered by Wetlabs. | ||
− | + | TABLE 51 CORE SPECIFICATIONS FOR MEASURING TURBIDITY AND OPTICAL BACKSCATTER | |
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===4.2.7 Currents=== | ===4.2.7 Currents=== | ||
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For the instrument to work properly, several parameters have to be defined before the measurement start. Usually the user defines a fixed pressure depending on the depth of the instrument, a fixed salinity value (assuming it is uniform for the column of water that is measured). Internal temperature sensor of the instrument helps to determine correct speed of sound in water. The instruments is also equipped with the tilt sensor and compass. | For the instrument to work properly, several parameters have to be defined before the measurement start. Usually the user defines a fixed pressure depending on the depth of the instrument, a fixed salinity value (assuming it is uniform for the column of water that is measured). Internal temperature sensor of the instrument helps to determine correct speed of sound in water. The instruments is also equipped with the tilt sensor and compass. | ||
− | + | TABLE 52 CORE SPECIFICATIONS FOR MEASURING CURRENTS | |
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===4.2.8 Fluorescence/Chlorophyll-A=== | ===4.2.8 Fluorescence/Chlorophyll-A=== | ||
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Several companies sell in situ fluorometer systems that come with biofouling protection. There are also FRRF systems that can be fitted to observatories and autonomous systems. In the past five years there have been many long term deployments of fluorimeter systems that have provided useful and sensible data despite potential biofouling or other calibration issues. Like for the most other sensors, pre- and post- deployment in situ calibration measurements is the best way to correct the drift. Moreover, if the intent is to convert the fluorescence values to chlorophyll-A or other specific values, it is advised to collect size fractionated algal pigment samples for calibration purposes. Wet Labs ECO Triplet, or TriOS microFlu, nanoFlu, matrixFlu VIS; TurnerDesigns Cyclops and Chelsea AquaTracka III are examples of widely used systems. | Several companies sell in situ fluorometer systems that come with biofouling protection. There are also FRRF systems that can be fitted to observatories and autonomous systems. In the past five years there have been many long term deployments of fluorimeter systems that have provided useful and sensible data despite potential biofouling or other calibration issues. Like for the most other sensors, pre- and post- deployment in situ calibration measurements is the best way to correct the drift. Moreover, if the intent is to convert the fluorescence values to chlorophyll-A or other specific values, it is advised to collect size fractionated algal pigment samples for calibration purposes. Wet Labs ECO Triplet, or TriOS microFlu, nanoFlu, matrixFlu VIS; TurnerDesigns Cyclops and Chelsea AquaTracka III are examples of widely used systems. | ||
− | + | FIGURE 4 TRIOS FLUOROMETERS EQUIPPED WITH IFREMER ANTIFOULING DEVICES | |
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+ | TABLE 53 CORE SPECIFICATIONS FOR MEASURING FLUORESCENCE | ||
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===4.2.9 Underwater sound=== | ===4.2.9 Underwater sound=== | ||
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Devices called hydrophones are widely used to track the underwater sounds. Hydrophones convert sound in water into electrical signals that can be amplified, recorded, played back over loudspeakers, and used to measure the characteristics of the sound. Most hydrophones are made from a piezoelectric material. Under the pressure of a sound wave, the piezoelectric element flexes and produces electrical signals. Some hydrophones, called omnidirectional hydrophones, record sounds from all directions with equal sensitivity. Other hydrophones, called directional hydrophones, have a higher sensitivity to signals from a particular direction. Directional receivers are most often constructed using a number of omnidirectional hydrophones combined in an array. Directional hydrophones are typically used in systems constructed for locating and tracking objects. Hydrophones are specially designed for underwater use. They are normally encased in rubber or polyurethane to provide protection from seawater. They can be mounted in several different ways, such as attached to a boat, towed, or placed in a fixed position underwater. | Devices called hydrophones are widely used to track the underwater sounds. Hydrophones convert sound in water into electrical signals that can be amplified, recorded, played back over loudspeakers, and used to measure the characteristics of the sound. Most hydrophones are made from a piezoelectric material. Under the pressure of a sound wave, the piezoelectric element flexes and produces electrical signals. Some hydrophones, called omnidirectional hydrophones, record sounds from all directions with equal sensitivity. Other hydrophones, called directional hydrophones, have a higher sensitivity to signals from a particular direction. Directional receivers are most often constructed using a number of omnidirectional hydrophones combined in an array. Directional hydrophones are typically used in systems constructed for locating and tracking objects. Hydrophones are specially designed for underwater use. They are normally encased in rubber or polyurethane to provide protection from seawater. They can be mounted in several different ways, such as attached to a boat, towed, or placed in a fixed position underwater. | ||
− | + | TABLE 54 CORE SPECIFICATIONS FOR MEASURING PASSIVE ACOUSTICS (GEOLOGY SPECIFIC) | |
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− | + | TABLE 55 CORE SPECIFICATIONS FOR MEASURING PASSIVE ACOUSTICS (OCEAN CIRCULATION | |
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====4.2.10 Imagery of microorganisms and habitat==== | ====4.2.10 Imagery of microorganisms and habitat==== | ||
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The analysis of underwater imagery imposes a series of unique challenges, which need to be tackled by the IT community in collaboration with biologists and ocean scientists. Among the challenges are image enhancement, scene understanding, classification, detection, segmentation; detection and monitoring of marine life, form tracking, automatic video annotation and summarization, context-aware machine learning and image understanding, image compression. | The analysis of underwater imagery imposes a series of unique challenges, which need to be tackled by the IT community in collaboration with biologists and ocean scientists. Among the challenges are image enhancement, scene understanding, classification, detection, segmentation; detection and monitoring of marine life, form tracking, automatic video annotation and summarization, context-aware machine learning and image understanding, image compression. | ||
− | + | TABLE 56 CORE SPECIFICATIONS OF EMSO FOR RECORDING HD VIDEO AND STILL IMAGES | |
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====4.2.10.1 The Imaging FlowCytoBot (IFCB) (McLane Research Laboratories)==== | ====4.2.10.1 The Imaging FlowCytoBot (IFCB) (McLane Research Laboratories)==== | ||
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====4.2.10.3 The FastCAM prototype (IFREMER - LDCM)==== | ====4.2.10.3 The FastCAM prototype (IFREMER - LDCM)==== | ||
− | This system is based on a high resolution (2 Megapixels) and high speed camera allowing the acquisition of 340 frames per second. It digitizes 10 mL of sample with a 10 times magnification within only 15 min (which is not possible with the first generation of FlowCAM devices). Comparison of grayscale images with those obtained with the first generation of FlowCAM showed that this new system analyses samples much faster and provides high image quality. A LED, driven by a control box emits light pulses of 5 μs duration. Light is injected into a large core diameter (1 mm) optical fiber to homogenize the beam. Upon the exit from the optical fiber, light illuminates the flow cell. A 10X magnification microscope objective associated with a tube lens images the organisms that circulate in the flow cell. The frame grabbing is synchronized with the LED light emission. A pixel of the image corresponds to 0.5 μm. The images are saved on the PC in real time thanks to a fast hard drive. For the image acquisition, a specific software is developed in Visual Basic 12. A second software developed in C language is used for image processing. Thanks to the «Matrox MIL 10» library, nearly 50 parameters are computed based on each image. These parameters then are used to classify images by applying existing classification tools, like «Plankton Identifier» (Delphi and Tanagra environments) or «ZooImage» (R environment) | + | This system is based on a high resolution (2 Megapixels) and high speed camera allowing the acquisition of 340 frames per second. It digitizes 10 mL of sample with a 10 times magnification within only 15 min (which is not possible with the first generation of FlowCAM devices). Comparison of grayscale images with those obtained with the first generation of FlowCAM showed that this new system analyses samples much faster and provides high image quality. A LED, driven by a control box emits light pulses of 5 μs duration. Light is injected into a large core diameter (1 mm) optical fiber to homogenize the beam. Upon the exit from the optical fiber, light illuminates the flow cell. A 10X magnification microscope objective associated with a tube lens images the organisms that circulate in the flow cell. The frame grabbing is synchronized with the LED light emission. A pixel of the image corresponds to 0.5 μm. The images are saved on the PC in real time thanks to a fast hard drive. For the image acquisition, a specific software is developed in Visual Basic 12. A second software developed in C language is used for image processing. Thanks to the «Matrox MIL 10» library, nearly 50 parameters are computed based on each image. These parameters then are used to classify images by applying existing classification tools, like «Plankton Identifier» (Delphi and Tanagra environments) or «ZooImage» (R environment) |
====4.2.10.4 Underwater Vision Profiler UVP5 (Hydroptic)==== | ====4.2.10.4 Underwater Vision Profiler UVP5 (Hydroptic)==== | ||
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Oceans environmental monitoring and seafloor exploitation needs in situ sensors and optical devices (cameras, lights) in various locations and on various carriers in order to initiate and to calibrate environmental models or to perform the supervision of underwater industrial processes. To be economically operational, these systems must be equipped with a biofouling protection of sensors and optical devices used in situ. Indeed, biofouling can modify the transducing interfaces of the sensors and cause unacceptable bias on the measurements performed by the in situ monitoring system in less than 15 days. In the same way biofouling can decrease the optical properties of windows and thus alter the lighting and the quality of the images recorded by the cameras. | Oceans environmental monitoring and seafloor exploitation needs in situ sensors and optical devices (cameras, lights) in various locations and on various carriers in order to initiate and to calibrate environmental models or to perform the supervision of underwater industrial processes. To be economically operational, these systems must be equipped with a biofouling protection of sensors and optical devices used in situ. Indeed, biofouling can modify the transducing interfaces of the sensors and cause unacceptable bias on the measurements performed by the in situ monitoring system in less than 15 days. In the same way biofouling can decrease the optical properties of windows and thus alter the lighting and the quality of the images recorded by the cameras. | ||
− | + | FIGURE 5 FOULING ON THE SENSORS IS THE MAIN CONSTRAINT FOR IN SITU OCEAN AUTONOMOUS MEASUREMENTS | |
It is acknowledged that a coastal monitoring system must be able to run without maintenance for 3 months in order for the system to be economically acceptable. For deep-sea observatories, actual maintenance interval for the Canadian Venus system is 6 months. ESONET, the European network of excellence for deep-sea observatories defines maintenance interval recommendation from 12 up to 36 months. | It is acknowledged that a coastal monitoring system must be able to run without maintenance for 3 months in order for the system to be economically acceptable. For deep-sea observatories, actual maintenance interval for the Canadian Venus system is 6 months. ESONET, the European network of excellence for deep-sea observatories defines maintenance interval recommendation from 12 up to 36 months. | ||
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Platform innovation is one of the drivers of increasing capabilities of marine systems. It is a structuring point for the constitution of several RIs (EUROARGO - profiling floats, GROOM - gliders, EMSO - sea floor + water column fixed point observatories, EuroFLEETS - oceanographic vessels). Each RI needs to mobilize the providers to cope with its own specifications and at the same time to benefit from inter RI cooperation. In this respect, manufacturers of sensors have to adapt to niche markets with high commercial/manufacturing cost ratio. That is why there is a market tendency for the instruments to include several sensors (multiprobe instruments since the 90s, EMSO Generic Instrumentation Module in 2017 EGIM). | Platform innovation is one of the drivers of increasing capabilities of marine systems. It is a structuring point for the constitution of several RIs (EUROARGO - profiling floats, GROOM - gliders, EMSO - sea floor + water column fixed point observatories, EuroFLEETS - oceanographic vessels). Each RI needs to mobilize the providers to cope with its own specifications and at the same time to benefit from inter RI cooperation. In this respect, manufacturers of sensors have to adapt to niche markets with high commercial/manufacturing cost ratio. That is why there is a market tendency for the instruments to include several sensors (multiprobe instruments since the 90s, EMSO Generic Instrumentation Module in 2017 EGIM). | ||
− | + | FIGURE 6 MULTIPARAMETER SYSTEM FOR SEA MEASUREMENTS | |
AUVs and Gliders (marine drones) use the aircraft concept of “pay load” to offer an interface to any sensor of the client. Research Infrastructures need a careful metrology approach (WP2 ENVRIPLUS) and an easy plug and play sensor interface policy (see WP1 Task 4 in ENVRIPLUS) to deal with this industrial structuration. | AUVs and Gliders (marine drones) use the aircraft concept of “pay load” to offer an interface to any sensor of the client. Research Infrastructures need a careful metrology approach (WP2 ENVRIPLUS) and an easy plug and play sensor interface policy (see WP1 Task 4 in ENVRIPLUS) to deal with this industrial structuration. | ||
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The energy constraint and the volume of data are limitations for long time monitoring. These limitations are addressed by implementing duty cycles, data compression and tentative in-situ data treatment. The Research Infrastructures such as JERICO, GROOM and EMSO are leading actors in implementing new generations of hydrophones and hydrophone interfaces to monitor both noise and marine mammal sounds. | The energy constraint and the volume of data are limitations for long time monitoring. These limitations are addressed by implementing duty cycles, data compression and tentative in-situ data treatment. The Research Infrastructures such as JERICO, GROOM and EMSO are leading actors in implementing new generations of hydrophones and hydrophone interfaces to monitor both noise and marine mammal sounds. | ||
− | + | TABLE 57 PROPOSED HYDROPHONE REQUIREMENTS FOR NOISE AND BIOACOUSTICS IN THE OPEN-OCEAN – FOR FIXO3/EMSO – ERIC DELORY – PLOCAN | |
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====4.4.2.2 Active acoustics==== | ====4.4.2.2 Active acoustics==== | ||
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UAVs play an important role in gas sensing, especially in the remote areas or areas with limited accessibility. For example, drones are widely used to perform measurements of volcanic gases. Thus, McGonigle et al. (2008) carried out measurements of volcanic gases at la Fossa volcano crater in Italy. They used the UAV helicopter capable of 12 minutes flight time and equipped with the ultraviolet and infrared spectrometers for SO2 and CO2 measurements. Khan et al. 2012 developed a greenhouse gas analyser for the installation on the helicopter UAV, using a vertical cavity surface emitting laser (VCSEL) for these purposes. Watai et al. (2005) mounted NDIR sensing system on UAV to monitor atmospheric CO2. Authors designed economic and accurate gas sensor and performed several flight tests with the payload of 3.5 kg and operation time of no longer than 1 hour. While WSNs are usually equipped with MOX sensors as was discussed above, UAV mostly apply optical sensing devices. Malaver, Motta et al. (2015) performed analysis of applications of both MOX and optical devices to integrate both sensing technologies at both platforms and reduce the costs. The table presented in this study is shown below. | UAVs play an important role in gas sensing, especially in the remote areas or areas with limited accessibility. For example, drones are widely used to perform measurements of volcanic gases. Thus, McGonigle et al. (2008) carried out measurements of volcanic gases at la Fossa volcano crater in Italy. They used the UAV helicopter capable of 12 minutes flight time and equipped with the ultraviolet and infrared spectrometers for SO2 and CO2 measurements. Khan et al. 2012 developed a greenhouse gas analyser for the installation on the helicopter UAV, using a vertical cavity surface emitting laser (VCSEL) for these purposes. Watai et al. (2005) mounted NDIR sensing system on UAV to monitor atmospheric CO2. Authors designed economic and accurate gas sensor and performed several flight tests with the payload of 3.5 kg and operation time of no longer than 1 hour. While WSNs are usually equipped with MOX sensors as was discussed above, UAV mostly apply optical sensing devices. Malaver, Motta et al. (2015) performed analysis of applications of both MOX and optical devices to integrate both sensing technologies at both platforms and reduce the costs. The table presented in this study is shown below. | ||
− | + | TABLE 58 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF MOX AND OPTICAL SENSORS FOR GHG MEASUREMENTS ACCORDING TO MALAVER, MOTTA ET AL. (2015) | |
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UAVs or drones are relatively new measurement platforms that have been used in most of the countries with strong climate research programs. Their great advantage is that they can be used in the conditions where presence of human is not desirable or not possible. These platforms are represented by the machines of diverse constructions and capabilities. Based on the ability to perform the measurements, UAV can be divided into following groups: | UAVs or drones are relatively new measurement platforms that have been used in most of the countries with strong climate research programs. Their great advantage is that they can be used in the conditions where presence of human is not desirable or not possible. These platforms are represented by the machines of diverse constructions and capabilities. Based on the ability to perform the measurements, UAV can be divided into following groups: | ||
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Most of UAV systems find their application in the projects of the economically developed countries. However, these countries are not responsible for global pollution in the same extent as many developing countries, where people lack to take care of the environment due to the constant fight for their wellbeing. In these countries, the health of population is often under strike due to decreasing quality of water and air resources. Cost-effective drones can be used in these countries to sample and monitor water quality, composition of atmosphere and climate patterns. | Most of UAV systems find their application in the projects of the economically developed countries. However, these countries are not responsible for global pollution in the same extent as many developing countries, where people lack to take care of the environment due to the constant fight for their wellbeing. In these countries, the health of population is often under strike due to decreasing quality of water and air resources. Cost-effective drones can be used in these countries to sample and monitor water quality, composition of atmosphere and climate patterns. | ||
− | + | TABLE 59 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF UAVS | |
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==6.3 Systems for biosphere measurements== | ==6.3 Systems for biosphere measurements== | ||
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Underwater Unmanned Autonomous Vehicles (gliders and other UAVs) are commonly used by oceanographers for research and monitoring of the physical and biogeochemical characteristics of the first 1000m of the ocean. The recently created GOOS program called “OceanGliders” (current web domain is http://www.ego-network.org) is gathering the major part of the worldwide gliders fleet and focuses its activity on the sustainable measurements of five Essential Ocean Variables (EOVs): temperature, salinity, chlorophyll a, oxygen and Coloured Dissolved Organic Matter (CDOM). Unless only these parameters are part of the network, many other sensors have been developed, integrated, tested and operationally deployed on AUVs such as passive acoustics, ADCP (current sensor), turbulence, hydrocarbonic sensor, nutrients, pH etc. Currently these sensors are not integrated in the network mainly for harmonized data management reasons but also because the technology is sporadically used by the community. The increasing capacities of gliders (depth, endurance and payload) and the relatively low cost of the technology, make it a very interesting tool for marine and maritime industries. Ocean gliders naturally complement existing elements of the GOOS with their utility on the continental slopes, ability to complete repeat surveys and resolve mesoscale oceanographic features such as fronts. | Underwater Unmanned Autonomous Vehicles (gliders and other UAVs) are commonly used by oceanographers for research and monitoring of the physical and biogeochemical characteristics of the first 1000m of the ocean. The recently created GOOS program called “OceanGliders” (current web domain is http://www.ego-network.org) is gathering the major part of the worldwide gliders fleet and focuses its activity on the sustainable measurements of five Essential Ocean Variables (EOVs): temperature, salinity, chlorophyll a, oxygen and Coloured Dissolved Organic Matter (CDOM). Unless only these parameters are part of the network, many other sensors have been developed, integrated, tested and operationally deployed on AUVs such as passive acoustics, ADCP (current sensor), turbulence, hydrocarbonic sensor, nutrients, pH etc. Currently these sensors are not integrated in the network mainly for harmonized data management reasons but also because the technology is sporadically used by the community. The increasing capacities of gliders (depth, endurance and payload) and the relatively low cost of the technology, make it a very interesting tool for marine and maritime industries. Ocean gliders naturally complement existing elements of the GOOS with their utility on the continental slopes, ability to complete repeat surveys and resolve mesoscale oceanographic features such as fronts. | ||
− | + | FIGURE 7 DRONES FOR UNDERWATER MEASUREMENTS: (A) SEA EXPLORER, (B) SEAGLIDER | |
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The European Glider Network is composed of about 100 platforms that are deployed in the Atlantic, Mediterranean Sea and Baltic Sea. It is important to precise that some of the European gliders are also deployed in non-European region for specific research purposes. The European Glider Network will certainly keep growing as many “new” laboratories are currently purchasing platforms (Ireland and Sweden for example). | The European Glider Network is composed of about 100 platforms that are deployed in the Atlantic, Mediterranean Sea and Baltic Sea. It is important to precise that some of the European gliders are also deployed in non-European region for specific research purposes. The European Glider Network will certainly keep growing as many “new” laboratories are currently purchasing platforms (Ireland and Sweden for example). | ||
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As known from the ENVRIplus community, technologies for the energy supply are represented by solar cells (63%), wind and hydroturbines (4% each) and other solutions (29%). Thus, solar panels is by far the most used technology, used to provide energy for isolated sites. Figure 8 shows the diagram of usage of various power supply solutions for isolated scientific stations within ENVRIplus network. | As known from the ENVRIplus community, technologies for the energy supply are represented by solar cells (63%), wind and hydroturbines (4% each) and other solutions (29%). Thus, solar panels is by far the most used technology, used to provide energy for isolated sites. Figure 8 shows the diagram of usage of various power supply solutions for isolated scientific stations within ENVRIplus network. | ||
− | + | FIGURE 8 POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS. ENVRIPLUS WP 3.1 "ENERGY REPORT", 2017 | |
===7.2.1 Solar panels=== | ===7.2.1 Solar panels=== | ||
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Lead acid batteries, VRLA (Valve Regulated Lead Acid), with gel or AGM are, by far, the most used ones through the ENVRI RI community. They are especially widely used for terrestrial measurements. Figure 9 shows the distribution (%) among battery technologies used for the measurements at 27 scientific stations within ENVRI network. As can be seen, 69% are taken by the lead batteries and 23% by lithium batteries, while alkaline and other technologies represent 4% each. | Lead acid batteries, VRLA (Valve Regulated Lead Acid), with gel or AGM are, by far, the most used ones through the ENVRI RI community. They are especially widely used for terrestrial measurements. Figure 9 shows the distribution (%) among battery technologies used for the measurements at 27 scientific stations within ENVRI network. As can be seen, 69% are taken by the lead batteries and 23% by lithium batteries, while alkaline and other technologies represent 4% each. | ||
− | + | FIGURE 9 POWER STORAGE SYSTEMS. ENVRI+ WP3.1 "ENERGY REPORT", 2017 | |
The biggest challenges of the batteries are that they need to face and run under very low temperatures, down to -20°C, and sometimes down to -40° to 50°C and be as light as possible. The weight of batteries is especially important when one considers their installation on drones. Light weight of the batteries allows larger amount of scientific equipment to be installed and, thus, is more desirable. Lithium batteries are currently the ones with the highest energy-to-weight ratio. That is why they are widely used for the environmental measurements within oceanic domain, and for the installation on drones. In the table 60 we summarize the companies providing technologies for the power supply and specify the type/ model of technology. | The biggest challenges of the batteries are that they need to face and run under very low temperatures, down to -20°C, and sometimes down to -40° to 50°C and be as light as possible. The weight of batteries is especially important when one considers their installation on drones. Light weight of the batteries allows larger amount of scientific equipment to be installed and, thus, is more desirable. Lithium batteries are currently the ones with the highest energy-to-weight ratio. That is why they are widely used for the environmental measurements within oceanic domain, and for the installation on drones. In the table 60 we summarize the companies providing technologies for the power supply and specify the type/ model of technology. | ||
− | + | TABLE 60 COMPANIES PRODUCING TECHNOLOGICAL SOLUTIONS | |
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=8 Place of Research Infrastructures on the technological market= | =8 Place of Research Infrastructures on the technological market= | ||
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The core of the scientific business dedicated to environmental measurements and climate change observations can be seen in interactions of producing companies with the consumers of their products. Such interactions are developed, facilitated, and actively promoted. However, these interactions are not always beneficial or successful due to the different views and capabilities of producers and consumers communities. Thus, producers do not always have the possibility to understand the needs of consumers due to the lack of communication or inability to dedicate the funds for the market research. This results in the production of low-functional, expensive devices and, consequently, decrease of companies revenues and incomes. At the same time, the end-users do not have the chance to explain the producers their needs and cannot afford purchasing expensive devices directly from them. Research infrastructures are the bodies that act as intermediates between producers of the technologies, their end-users and third parties, such as grant holders, providing benefits for all market players as shown below at figure 10. | The core of the scientific business dedicated to environmental measurements and climate change observations can be seen in interactions of producing companies with the consumers of their products. Such interactions are developed, facilitated, and actively promoted. However, these interactions are not always beneficial or successful due to the different views and capabilities of producers and consumers communities. Thus, producers do not always have the possibility to understand the needs of consumers due to the lack of communication or inability to dedicate the funds for the market research. This results in the production of low-functional, expensive devices and, consequently, decrease of companies revenues and incomes. At the same time, the end-users do not have the chance to explain the producers their needs and cannot afford purchasing expensive devices directly from them. Research infrastructures are the bodies that act as intermediates between producers of the technologies, their end-users and third parties, such as grant holders, providing benefits for all market players as shown below at figure 10. | ||
− | + | FIGURE 10 INTERACTIONS OF RIS WITH OTHER PARTICIPANTS IN THE MARKET. | |
The arrows between the RI body and the companies represent: | The arrows between the RI body and the companies represent: | ||
# Services that can be provided by RIs to the companies | # Services that can be provided by RIs to the companies | ||
− | + | * Representing large groups of the end-users, RIs are capable of purchasing products of high cost, which can be shared among the multiple end-users. | |
− | + | * As large entities, connecting numerous research institutes and governmental structures, RIs can collect the demands for the standardization and metrology and pass them to the companies for the future implementation. | |
− | + | * RIs can predict natural disasters affecting business and human well-being. This is a valuable capability for business management and crisis prevention. | |
− | + | * Co-designing innovation. RIs can promote the development of new products and services as well as to adapt them to the market needs and rules. | |
− | + | * RIs can provide the facilities, necessary for testing of new technologies | |
− | + | * RIs can perform data collection and management, to support companies and generate income. | |
# Services that companies can provide to RIs | # Services that companies can provide to RIs | ||
− | + | * Companies can sell their innovative devices to RIs. In case the devices are of high cost, RIs will be able to purchase them in contrast to the single users/scientists. | |
− | + | * Companies can provide new services to the RI, in larger extent than to the single users. | |
− | + | * Data collection and transmission. While using the facilities of RIs, companies can collect data at low cost. This data can be shared with the members of RIs to make their work more efficient. | |
# Services that RIs can provide to customers (end-users) | # Services that RIs can provide to customers (end-users) | ||
− | + | * RIs can assure that all the customers (end-users) have equal possibilities to access the facilities for the environmental measurements and climate change investigations, as well as to the data provided by each and every RI. | |
− | + | * RIs provide transferable and reusable data and knowledge. | |
# RIs become an attractive receiver of grants and funding | # RIs become an attractive receiver of grants and funding | ||
− | + | * Given the same amount of financial support, RIs can provide the access to the research facilities to larger amount of scientists or other interested communities. | |
# Direct interactions between the end-users and producing companies | # Direct interactions between the end-users and producing companies | ||
− | + | * Direct interactions are possible, but are never as beneficial as interactions through the RIs due to the reasons mentioned in points1-4. | |
==8.2 RIs as innovative business partners== | ==8.2 RIs as innovative business partners== | ||
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RIs as contributors to new products and services – RIs can work as competitive infrastructures for businesses. Start-up companies with limited possibilities of purchasing of high-tech devices can become more beneficial by using shared devices within RIs. Such access to the systems through the RIs will reduce the cost of system operation, ensure the full time-load of devices and, thus, increase the effectiveness of work. | RIs as contributors to new products and services – RIs can work as competitive infrastructures for businesses. Start-up companies with limited possibilities of purchasing of high-tech devices can become more beneficial by using shared devices within RIs. Such access to the systems through the RIs will reduce the cost of system operation, ensure the full time-load of devices and, thus, increase the effectiveness of work. | ||
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RIs as users of innovative techniques – Upon their development and growth, RIs will demand new technological solutions with better measurement characteristics and thus promote research, development and manufacturing of new technological devices for environmental measurements and climate change investigations. | RIs as users of innovative techniques – Upon their development and growth, RIs will demand new technological solutions with better measurement characteristics and thus promote research, development and manufacturing of new technological devices for environmental measurements and climate change investigations. | ||
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It is important to note, that companies, interested in the collaboration with RIs can be represented by Small and Medium sized companies (SMEs) as well as by large consortiums and conglomerates. Both SMEs and larger companies will have their own benefits from collaboration with RIs, however the interactions of the entities in such cases might differ. Table 61 compares the interactions of single researchers with SMEs and RIs with SMEs. | It is important to note, that companies, interested in the collaboration with RIs can be represented by Small and Medium sized companies (SMEs) as well as by large consortiums and conglomerates. Both SMEs and larger companies will have their own benefits from collaboration with RIs, however the interactions of the entities in such cases might differ. Table 61 compares the interactions of single researchers with SMEs and RIs with SMEs. | ||
− | + | TABLE 61 INTERACTION OF RESEARCHERS AND RIS WITH SMES | |
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− | + | TABLE 62 INTERACTION OF RESEARCHERS AND RIS WITH LARGE COMPANIES | |
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==8.3 Addressed technologies== | ==8.3 Addressed technologies== | ||
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On the way of development, technologies pass several stages. These stages are represented by the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) ranging from 1 to 9, where 1 refers to the least developed technology and 9 to the most developed one. Usually it is assumed, that technologies with the TRL from 1 to 5 are immature technologies, developed and worked on by individual scientists. Contrary, technologies with the TRL from 8 to 9 are mature technologies, ready to become commercial products. As can be noticed, technologies with the TRL 6-7 are in the intermediate state. In this stage they cannot be further developed with the capacities of scientists, as such development would require significant allocation of funds. At this intermediate stage, they are also unlikely to attract funds from the commercial sector, as the companies are not ready to invest in the technologies that will not bring the profit in the short-term perspective. TRL scale is illustrated in figure 11. | On the way of development, technologies pass several stages. These stages are represented by the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) ranging from 1 to 9, where 1 refers to the least developed technology and 9 to the most developed one. Usually it is assumed, that technologies with the TRL from 1 to 5 are immature technologies, developed and worked on by individual scientists. Contrary, technologies with the TRL from 8 to 9 are mature technologies, ready to become commercial products. As can be noticed, technologies with the TRL 6-7 are in the intermediate state. In this stage they cannot be further developed with the capacities of scientists, as such development would require significant allocation of funds. At this intermediate stage, they are also unlikely to attract funds from the commercial sector, as the companies are not ready to invest in the technologies that will not bring the profit in the short-term perspective. TRL scale is illustrated in figure 11. | ||
− | + | FIGURE 11 TECHNOLOGY READINESS LEVEL AXIS (1-9) AND STAGED OF THE TECHNOLOGICAL PRODUCT. | |
RIs thus refer to the emerging technologies with the TRL from 6 to 7, to ensure that they will overpass the financial barrier and become the commercially successful technologies with the great potential of further development and improvement. Also RIs will target improvement of technologies, such as their miniaturization and bettering of precision, as these parameters can also be referred as innovation. | RIs thus refer to the emerging technologies with the TRL from 6 to 7, to ensure that they will overpass the financial barrier and become the commercially successful technologies with the great potential of further development and improvement. Also RIs will target improvement of technologies, such as their miniaturization and bettering of precision, as these parameters can also be referred as innovation. | ||
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Application of sensors in various fields of human activity - it is a common mistake to think that existing and novel sensors can find their applications only in the scientific research. Common application areas also include private and public healthcare, education and increasing general information and awareness. Increase of number of spheres where the sensors will be applied is another well-seen trend. | Application of sensors in various fields of human activity - it is a common mistake to think that existing and novel sensors can find their applications only in the scientific research. Common application areas also include private and public healthcare, education and increasing general information and awareness. Increase of number of spheres where the sensors will be applied is another well-seen trend. | ||
− | + | TABLE 63 APPLICATIONS OF SENSORS FOR AIR AND WATER QUALITY MONITORING | |
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As a result of this work, authors present the table, summarizing the technologies mentioned in the current document, in relation to the RIs, they are applied in and in relation to the domains, where they are used. The table can be found in a separate annex 1. | As a result of this work, authors present the table, summarizing the technologies mentioned in the current document, in relation to the RIs, they are applied in and in relation to the domains, where they are used. The table can be found in a separate annex 1. | ||
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{{DocumentMetadata | {{DocumentMetadata | ||
− | | url = | + | | url = http://www.envriplus.eu/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/D1.1-Emerging-technologies-emerging-markets-fostering-the-innovation-potential-of-research-infrastructures.pdf |
+ | | pdf = | ||
+ | | zenodo = | ||
| project = ENVRIplus | | project = ENVRIplus | ||
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<!-- Document type --> | <!-- Document type --> | ||
[[Category:Report]] | [[Category:Report]] | ||
− | <!-- | + | <!-- Relevant domains --> |
− | [[Category: | + | [[Category:Atmosphere]] |
+ | [[Category:Ecosystem]] | ||
+ | [[Category:Marine]] | ||
+ | [[Category:Solid Earth]] | ||
<!-- Keywords --> | <!-- Keywords --> | ||
[[Category:Innovation]] | [[Category:Innovation]] |